The Pacification of Araucania: a comprehensive analysis of invasion, dispossession, and Mapuche genocide
Chile's history contains a chapter written with euphemisms and blood: the misnamed "Pacification of Araucania." This article delves into the details of this process (1861-1883), deconstructing the official narrative to reveal a complex operation of military conquest, legal dispossession, and forced colonization that redefined the destiny of the Chilean state and the Mapuche people, leaving a legacy of conflict that persists to this day.
1. Historical context: autonomous Wallmapu and the expansionist Chilean state
In the mid-nineteenth century, the southern frontier of Chile was clearly delineated by the Biobío River. South of it extended Wallmapu, the ancestral territory of the Mapuche people, a de facto independent nation that had resisted Spanish conquest for more than 300 years. Mapuche society was organized into a complex social and political structure based on the lof (family clan), the ayllarewe (federation of lofs), and the butalmapus (large territorial alliances).
For the Chilean state, consolidated after the wars of independence and under the influence of European ideas of progress, this autonomy was a problem. Political and economic elites, under the presidencies of Manuel Montt (1851-1861) and then José Joaquín Pérez (1861-1871), viewed occupation as necessary to:
Appropriate resources: the lands of Araucania were considered the "granary of Chile."
Unify territory: connect the central zone to colonies in Valdivia and Llanquihue.
Assert sovereignty: eliminate the internal frontier and project an image of a modern nation.
2. Key actors in the conflict
This historical process was led by figures and groups with radically opposed interests.
Category
Main Actors
Role in the Conflict
Chilean State (Officials)
José Joaquín Pérez, Federico Errázuriz Z., Aníbal Pinto, Domingo Santa María
Presidents who drove the occupation policy
Chilean State (Military)
Col. Cornelio Saavedra, Gen. Gregorio Urrutia, Col. Basilio Urrutia
Chilean and European settlers, Orélie Antoine de Tounens
Occupied lands, pretext for conquest
3. The State's plan: Cornelio Saavedra's proposal
In 1861, Colonel Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez presented to the Chilean Congress a detailed plan for the "Pacification of Araucania." He proposed abandoning the policy of treaties for material occupation, based on three axes:
Advance the military frontier from the Biobío to the Malleco, with forts.
Subdivide and sell "secured" lands.
Promote the settlement of Chilean and foreign settlers to "Chilenize" the region.
The plan sparked debate but was approved by Congress, triggering the invasion.
4. Military execution: phases of an asymmetric war
Military conquest unfolded in several phases, interrupted by Mapuche uprisings and the War of the Pacific.
First Phase (1861-1868): Advance and Fortification Foundation of forts (Angol, Mulchén, etc.), immediate Mapuche resistance, "scorched earth" tactics applied by the army.
Second Phase (1869-1881): Diplomatic Pause and Consolidation Slowdown in advance, territorial consolidation, introduction of telegraph and railroad.
Third Phase (1881-1883): The Final Offensive Last major Mapuche uprising in 1881, massive military repression, founding of Temuco, military end of the "Pacification."
5. Legal dispossession: how laws annihilated Mapuche property
Military conquest was inseparable from legal conquest.
Radicación Law of 1866:
Definition of "vacant lands": any land not "continuously occupied" by indigenous peoples becomes state property.
Imposition of individual private property, foreign to Mapuche culture.
Creation of radicación commissions, a process rife with abuses and corruption.
"Títulos de Merced": Confinement in Reductions
Attribution of small portions of land (approximately 6 hectares per person), insufficient for traditional economy.
Loss of over 90% of Mapuche territory.
Social fragmentation and isolation of communities.
6. Directed colonization: land for some, dispossession for others
Treatment of the Mapuche People: confinement in reductions, lack of state support, status of "minors" under guardianship.
Treatment of European/Chilean Settlers: large parcels, state support (travel, tools, animals, medical assistance), status as full citizens.
7. The human catastrophe and the genocide debate
The "Pacification" was a human catastrophe that decimated the Mapuche population, fueling a debate about the term "genocide" according to the UN definition (1948).
Destruction of economy, dispossession of land, confinement in uninhabitable zones, massive famines and epidemics.
Ethnocide: destruction of culture through prohibition of language, religion, and autonomous education.
Historiographical Perspectives
Traditional: inevitable process for Chilean unification.
Revisionist: imperialist conquest, systematic violence, labeled ethnocide or genocide.
Mapuche: invasion of a sovereign country, beginning of a persistent colonial relationship.
Demographic Collapse
Between 20,000 and 30,000 Mapuche died of hunger and disease between 1881 and the early twentieth century.
The Mapuche population, estimated at half a million before conquest, suffered a demographic collapse from which it did not recover for more than a century.
8. Total impact: disarticulation of Mapuche society
The "Pacification" caused a structural rupture in all aspects of Mapuche life:
Political: loss of authority of the lonkos.
Economic: transition from a prosperous society to poverty.
Social: fragmentation and forced migration to cities.
Cultural: forced assimilation, threat to Mapuche language and worldview.
9. Mapuche resistance and resilience
Despite devastating circumstances, Mapuche resistance endured, transforming into political and legal struggles in the twentieth century. Memory and cultural identity survived clandestinely, testifying to remarkable resilience.
10. Legacy and historical debt: roots of current conflict
The "Pacification of Araucania" is the direct source of current conflict in Chile. The territorial and autonomy claims of the Mapuche movement rest on this historical dispossession. The "historical debt" is central to public debate, and recommendations for reparation remain largely unimplemented.
11. Comparative analysis: Araucania, the Argentine "Desert," and the American West
The Chilean process was not isolated:
Conquest of the Desert (Argentina, 1878-1885): similar ideological justification, total war tactics, objective of freeing lands for livestock.
Indian Wars (United States, nineteenth century): westward expansion, reservations, similar dispossession and violence.
In all cases, nation-states used their military superiority and a legal framework to dispossess indigenous peoples, leaving a legacy of trauma and struggle for justice.
Conclusion: a history to reclaim
The "Pacification of Araucania" was a war of conquest that dispossessed a people of their territory and sought to annihilate their culture. Understanding it in all its complexity is a duty for any society aspiring to justice. Recognizing this past is not reopening wounds, but beginning to heal them on the basis of truth and reparation.
The new vessel, Milagro, serves as a cornerstone for Karukinka’s operations. More than a means of transportation, this 20-meter steel ketch is a fully equipped, autonomous floating base that allows Karukinka to carry out ambitious scientific, artistic, and cultural expeditions in Patagonia, Cape Horn, and even Antarctica #patagonia sailing
A versatile floating base camp in insular Patagonia
Milagro is an expedition sailboat acquired by the Karukinka Association in 2023 thanks to the support of its members. This 20‑metre (64ft) Bruce Roberts steel ketch plays a fundamental role in the implementation of our association’s activities. Built in Sweden and having already completed two circumnavigations, the Milagro is a true “floating base camp” able to host a range of initiatives — artistic, scientific, or sporting.
With its tailored technical features (length 20 m, beam 5.25 m, draft 2.30 m, Cummins 180 HP engine, 180 m² upwind sail area and 295 m² downwind), the Milagro provides a robust, well‑adapted platform for our expeditions in polar and subpolar regions, Karukinka’s primary fields of activity.
The sailing vessel Milagro at the foot of a glacier in the Darwin Range, Tierra del Fuego, Patagonian Channels, Chile (Photograph: Diego Quiroga, from the sailing yacht Pic La Lune, Ushuaia)
A support vessel for the logistics of our scientific, sporting, and artistic expeditions
An infrastructure adapted to field research
The Milagro is an essential logistical support for Karukinka’s scientific and artistic expeditions. Fully equipped and insulated, the vessel can host up to 12 people (10 for projects lasting more than a week) in five cabins (four doubles and one quadruple). This large capacity facilitates the creation of multidisciplinary teams, in line with our association’s goal of bringing together sporting, artistic, and scientific expertise.
Her considerable autonomy (1,500 L of diesel, 1,000 L of water + desalination system, generator, solar panels…) allows her to reach remote areas and remain on site long enough to complete our work. The vessel is also equipped for telecommunications in zone A4 and has internet access, ensuring safety and connectivity even in the most isolated regions such as the Patagonian channels (Tierra del Fuego, Darwin Range, Cape Horn, Antarctica).
Exploration of a fjord in the Darwin Range (Tierra del Fuego) where one of Patagonia’s many glaciers flows (sailing vessel Milagro, Chilean Fjords, March 2025)
A tool for ambitious projects
Thanks to Milagro, Karukinka has greatly expanded its activities, enabling truly independent scientific and artistic research expeditions and residencies. The vessel is crewed by a volunteer professional team of two to three holders of the French State Sailing Certificate and Merchant Navy qualification.
The acquisition of this yacht made possible, among others, the North Cape to Cape Horn Expedition (2023‑2025), a major project supported by the French Ministry of Culture’s “Mondes Nouveaux” programme. This voyage, linking Norway’s North Cape to Cape Horn under sail, concluded with arrival in Tierra del Fuego on 24 January 2025, after travelling over 15,000 nautical miles and rounding Cape Horn under sail in March and April 2025.
Milagro at anchor in one of the many bays of the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve (2025)
Funding the association’s activities
A sailing section for self‑financing
Since 2023, Karukinka has had a sailing section affiliated with the French Sailing Federation. The association offers sailing courses reserved for its members, which help fund its actions in support of indigenous peoples and ensure the delivery of ambitious projects.
Given the budget required to maintain and operate a 20‑metre yacht — and the scope of the association’s long‑term projects (digitising documents and archives, creating online databases, funding travel to Europe for members of indigenous communities) — Karukinka’s Annual General Assembly sets the membership fee needed to take part in the various sailing activities and thus sustain its work.
Sailing in the Patagonian Channels with our members from Scotland and Belgium: Norena, David, Morag, and Morgan (Beagle Channel, Chile, February 2025)
Supporting independent research
Aware of the difficulties laboratories and researchers face in obtaining funding for work in polar and subpolar regions, Karukinka does everything it can to support projects of a scientific, artistic, sporting, or humanistic nature. The Milagro plays a crucial role in this self‑financing and independent research‑support strategy.
Artisanal fishing in the Patagonian Channels with José Germán Gonzalez Calderón (fisherman and Yagan craftsman, honorary member of Karukinka and godfather of the vessel, from Navarino Island)
The association also offers services for field missions aboard Milagro to laboratories, institutes, and groups of researchers and/or artists. This approach allows resources to be pooled and makes difficult‑to‑reach study areas more accessible.
A tool of freedom for future projects
The acquisition of Milagro has greatly broadened the horizons of our association. Thanks to this vessel, we now have full freedom to continue our actions and research south of the Strait of Magellan, from 2025 to 2030 and beyond.
The yacht allows the association to conduct multidisciplinary projects in hard‑to‑reach regions such as the Patagonian Channels, Antarctica, and South Georgia. It also facilitates the continuation of work with the Selk’nam, Haush, and Yagan indigenous peoples of southern Patagonia, one of the association’s main areas of focus.
Arrival of the sailing vessel Milagro in the Beagle Channel, Patagonia, after 15,000 nm (photograph by José Germán González Calderón, near Ukika Puerto Williams, Navarino Island, Cape Horn region, Chile, 2025)
The Milagro represents far more than just a means of transport and is not an end in itself, but a means. It is an essential strategic tool, allowing the association to fully carry out its mission of exploration, scientific research, and artistic creation in polar and subpolar regions.
Thanks to this vessel, Karukinka can undertake ambitious projects, self‑finance its activities, support independent research, and continue its collaboration with indigenous peoples. The Milagro thus embodies the association’s philosophy: independence, goodwill, and commitment to knowledge and the preservation of the cultures and environments of our planet’s extreme regions.
Departure of the expedition sailing vessel Milagro from the fishing port of Puerto Williams with an international crew (Argentina, Chile, and France): Aude, Lauriane, Sébastien, Clément, Alejandro, Shenü, Damien, Mirtha (godmother of the vessel), Alicia, Maria, and Vaïna, filmed by José, the godfather of Milagro (January 2025).
The closing ceremony of "EMUSH 2025" [International Muralists Meeting in Ushuaia] took place in the Niní Marshall Hall of the House of Culture. The eleven participating artists added their works to the more than 350 murals currently found in the city.
The Secretariat of Culture and Education of the Municipality of Ushuaia organized the closing ceremony of the 6th International Muralists Meeting at the End of the World "EMUSH 2025," held in the Niní Marshall Hall of the House of Culture.
During the event, which was attended by the city's mayor, Walter Vuoto, the works created by the 11 selected artists were showcased, and each of them received a certificate of participation in the Meeting.
On this occasion, the works of Antonela Gualla and Rodrigo Crespo from Ushuaia, Enrique Jorge Bernard and Sofía Hst from Río Grande, Julia Anahí Tiscornia from Río Negro, Adrián Cola and Martín Agazzi from Buenos Aires, Agustina Cantoni from San Juan, Soledad Moisas from Ayacucho, Lucas Artola from La Plata, as well as guest artist Sebastián Daels, were presented, alongside participants including muralists and artists from the city, graduates of the Polivalente de Arte, and Agustín, a young person with a disability who specializes in watercolor and accompanied the work at various locations throughout the city.
“We are proud to share this closing ceremony with the community, continuing this great challenge of an integrated public cultural policy entrusted to us by Mayor Walter Vuoto,” said Ushuaia’s Secretary of Culture and Education, Belén Molina, who confirmed that “Emush now has 60 artistic interventions to its credit, depicting aspects of our identity on our walls.”
The official thanked “all those who made this new edition of Emush possible, the artists and residents who donated their walls, the participants who collaborated and supported the process, as well as Ushuaia’s ambassador and ambassadress, María José Pazos and Omar Lemul, who supported the process throughout.”
Tamara Klink, with sparkling eyes and a generous spirit, is one of those people who take us along with on their journey, and inspire us to awaken our childhood dreams.
In 2024, Tamara Klink, a 27-year-old Brazilian sailor, drops anchor in a deserted Greenland fjord, voluntarily “imprisoned” in the ice for the eight months of a daring wintering, alone in the middle of the Arctic. A dreamlike adventure that redraws the boundaries of what is possible, and whose uniqueness lies as much in the journey as in the quest.
The travel tales of her father, the famous navigator Amyr Klink, lulled young Tamara to sleep. The icy silence and polar bears that reigned there nurtured her dreams of tomorrow.
When her father took her on board, she discovered the Arctic and her imagination met reality. “It was as if I'd discovered that magic really did exist. Back home, I couldn't live a normal life knowing that this place was real." Later, it was her turn to set off on her own.
She learned French “above all to read the navigation books, most of which were written in the language of Molière”. After studying naval architecture in Nantes, she settled in Lorient: “Being around people for whom this way of life was normal inspired me. A bit like someone who dreams of being in the mountains and settles in Chamonix”. In Norway, she bought her first boat for the price of a bicycle, which her grandmother named Sardinhia 1, and made her first solo Transatlantic crossing. “The craziest thing about all this wasn't that I was the youngest person to have sailed in the Arctic, it was that I did it with a weekend boat, not at all made for that!”
One book and several conferences later, her dream of returning to the ice never left her. She bought a second boat, Sardinhia 2, and embarked on the preparation of this rather crazy project: an 8-month wintering, alone, in the Arctic, surrounded by ice. “Anyone who's seen Titanic knows: sailing among icebergs is a challenge”. In the Arctic, we face the unknown: obsolete nautical charts, uncharted seabeds, and the omnipresent threat of polar bears. It's also a technical challenge: for this, Millet accompanies her with equipment designed for polar latitudes, notably its MXP range. She had to think of everything, “right down to the number of tubes of toothpaste!" Nothing superfluous in her luggage. She slipped in the books Into the wild by Jon Krakauer and Les femmes aussi sont du voyage by Lucie Azéma.
The boat is ready, Tamara is ready: it's time to leave.
At first, she comes up against a few Greenlanders who take a dim view of the arrival of Europeans, who often reduce them to folklore, a stereotype mythologized by colonial history. But they also share the same fears as those around her: spending eight months alone on the ice floe is not serious. For them, Tamara is too thin, too Brazilian, too... womanly. The Arctic has always been a man's terrain, “women were thought to bring bad luck on boats”. Suffering was romanticized, virility was praised. Today, women are writing their own stories, and Tamara is “more afraid of men than polar bears”.
Tamara finds her place, moves “in time and not in space”, and “being just happy to be there”. She discovers a previously unknown rhythm and finds refuge in her solitude. When the thaw came, Tamara withdrew, strengthened by the journey that had changed her forever.
Although she was said to be “imprisoned” by the ice, Tamara experienced unparalleled freedom. She found happiness on the ice floe, despite the dangers. An ice pack that she will continue to defend in 2025, the year of the glaciers, so threatened is it by climate change. And if you listen to Tamara, you can bet she'll still be answering the call of the ice.
The president of the Commission 3 of the Provincial Parliament, Legislator Laura Colazo, conducted a meeting with the indigenous people communities. This is an initiative from the Green deputy to include them in the decision making within the Consultative Commission of the Indigenous Forests (CCIF). « We have the opportunity to acknowledge and make the autochthonous people of our Province visible who have lived and still live on these lands and offer a historical rectification, she declared. She also mentioned the necessity to expand the energetic matrix of the province to support a sustainable production process.
Source: https://www.radiouniversidad.com.ar/2024/08/26/dictamen-para-que-pueblos-originarios-participen-en-el-consejo-consultivo-provincial-de-bosques-nativos/ Translated from Spanish into French by the Karukinka association.
Río Grande. Last Thursday, Legislator María Laura Colazo (Green Party) attended a new meeting of the Natural Resources Commission n°3, which she presided. This was the occasion to discuss her initiative dedicated to “The 109/24 Case” with the aim of promoting the permanent integration of the representatives of the autochthonous people to the Consultative Commission of the Indigenous Forests (CCIF).
To this motive, the Parliamentary appreciated the attendance of the members of the communities: Rafaela Ishton and Paiakoala. “We have the opportunity to acknowledge and make the autochthonous people of our province visible who have lived and still live on these lands, and to offer a historical rectification”, declared Colazo.
The Parliamentary also underlined the utmost importance of the Selk’nam and Yagán people’s voices being part of the CCIF and that they have their place in this consultative body. “This is why we invited them, we wanted to have their support.”
She also added that this way they are “integrated” into the territorial discussion and planning processes. The Selk’nam people is the only autochthonous people who own their community propriety title”, she added.
It’s worth noting that the initiative includes amendments to provincial law n°869. In Article 14 of the aforementioned standard, the paragraph “q” is added, which specifies the integration of a representative for each indigenous community from the province with a legal status registered on national level.
Eleonora Anderson Varela, herself, from Rafaela Ishton’s community was thankful for this space: « We are delighted to have a place at the CCIF, this is a historical event for us. The community owns approximately 36000 hectares of which 80% are made of forests”, she declared.
Another member of the community, Alexis González Palma, told them “It is very important for us because they are giving us back our dignity and the possibility to tackle issues which affect us as autochthonous people of these lands”, he declared.
It’s worth noting that Tarcisio Vargas and Damián Nenes Vargas, from the Yagán people, also attended the Commission meeting as representatives of the Paiakoala community.
« Today, the autochthonous people are beginning to be respected. Taking care of our forests is good not only for the communities but also for the totality of the population. We risk losing the canelo and need to take care of it together”, declared Vargas, a Yagán referent.
Legislatofs Raúl Von Der Ensuren and Lechman (SF), Juan Carlos Pino (PJ), Federico Greve and Federico Sciurano (FORJA), as well as Legislatir Gisela Dos Santos (SF) were present.
Two million dollars for the Native Forests
It’s worth noting that Legislator María Laura Colazo attended the second annual meeting of the Consultative Commission of the Indigenous Forests of which she is a member, and which was held at Tolhuin Tourism Secretary beginning of August.
On that occasion, the working paths which will be followed were analysed, after it was learnt that the “Green fund for the climate» programme, which will be run through United Nations Organisation for food and agriculture (FAO), and rising from an initiative led by the national government and the province and called Reduction of the Emissions related to the Deforestation and Degradation of the forests (REDD).
The programme comes to the Land of Fire with a component which will be dedicated to the forest conservation work with the autochthonous communities, among which the global community Plan with Rafaela Ishton’s Selk’nam community and also at the productive development of the forestry bay of Tolhuin; the other component will also be used for the prevention of wood fire at the interface of Ushuaia. It’s worth noting that, according to the programme of fire prevention at the forest-urban area interface, we mean by fire a “fire which grows in the transition areas between the urban, rural or forestry areas where the structures of the buildings are mingled with the plants».
Approximately two million dollars will be allocated to the Land of Fire province “and the project in general, as mentioned by Engineer Francisco Jofré who is FAO’s representative which is in the province, is approximately 85 million dollars for the totality of the country in this programme called RedMás, a specific programme also related to the climatic change.
Members of the Forest National Board of Management and the FAO for the Payments at Results project attended the meeting, as well as managers of the provincial government and representatives of the institutions forming the CCIF.
It’s worth noting that the United Nations Organisation for the food and agriculture better known as FAO and a specialised agency of UNO leading international activities which aims at eradicating hunger.
The organisation is conducting several projects implemented all around the country. It plays a fundamental role in striving towards food safety, family farming reinforcement, transformation of food-processing systems and sustainable development.
“A lot of families live off the forestry sector”
During a talk with “La Mañana de Tecno”, broadcast on Radio Universidad 93,5 MHz, the Green Parliamentary reminded that the forestry consultative commission “is taking place under the 869 provincial law and is a environment composed of various actors” who are related to everything concerning the use of the whole forestry sector, what is active in our province. So, as a representative of the legislative Assembly, I have to be part of this space.”
Laura Colazo explained that « the members of FAO, an international organisation under the United Nations, benefit from specific financing programmes used to manage several projects in our country. And in this project which is very important and in the making in 23 provinces : we are working on those 3 issues in our province, which are the ones we talked about within the commission in order to grant approval to all the members to make progress in this area, while being able to follow through the community integration plans that the Forestry General Board of Directors works very well with the Selk’nam persons who have set up their authorities very recently, who have held elections. And the truth is that they have very interesting projects to be accomplished in our province, particularly in their community propriety, which represents 35 000 hectares owned in the Tolhuín region. And it is very important to achieve sustainable use, and the truth is that we think it is also important to assist them because it requires means to fulfil these projects.”
« For us, it’s very interesting to provide some assistance, everything needs to be done step by step. The technical advice mission will be carried out by means of organisations such as CIEFAP (Andine centre for the forestry research and vulgarisation of Patagonia), an organisation which has also been working in our province for many years and will provide all the technical advice, so it also seems important to do this. When I say that Tolhuin’s mayor (Daniel Harrington) is present in the area, it’s because it comes down to stimulate the productive development of this sector so that it keeps on generating work sources such as in Tolhuin today.
With regard to this, Legislator Laura Colazo noticed that “a lot of the families live off work in the forestry sector and it seems important to add on value, to be able to create training, to be able to use all these resources in a sustainable way and all the way through the production line, not only in raw wood but also in the use of forestry residues.
She understood that “there is a great opportunity to create more productive companies, to generate more work while taking care of the environment, because we are talking here of forestry residues which, in some cases are burnt and could generate a transformable product, raw material” then able to generate new products which “ can be part of the circular economy paradigm, by salvaging them and reintroducing them into the productive sector».
« Productive matrix and energetic matrix go hand in hand»
The Green Parliamentary understood that “we need to concentrate on the economy laid out by the forestry sector; It is not about generating a product in a linear way where the waste goes to the kip, but it’s rather about considering this waste as a resource and send it back as raw material so that new competitive products are generated into the market sector and creating work».
When asked about the energetic deficit held by Tolhuin to support an industrial process, she recalled that « by the end of 2022, we voted to grant the province the right to access a credit authorized the ACD, the Andine Confederation of Development, and by means of other funds that the province may obtain. Already in 2002, we noticed the necessity to invest in the totality of energetic matrix expansion of the Land of Fire. A few days ago, we learnt that the national government’s approval was under way, to set up credits and invest in equipment. I think this is fundamental for the development and particularly to think about the energetic transition that our province must implement. Today, we are providing gas supply. Gas is a transitional fuel. And all the resources generated by licence fees, as this province is one of first to produced gas from Argentina, these resources generated from the licence fees can be used to develop a new energetic matrix largely fed by renewable energies. And this financing project, which we approved in 2022 at the Legislature, is now going forward with the Nation’s approval and demonstrates all this a little.
“It’s a core issue: if we want to talk about expanding the productive matrix, it must go hand in hand with expanding the province energetic matrix”, she finally declared.
As you may have noticed, the internship programme for the 2024-2025 season is online. Featuring coastal and offshore navigations north and south, there is something for everyone!
Milagro is currently in Ireland and Scotland for coastal internships departing from Dublin until mid-September, then it will be time for the offshore navigations with two return trips between Dublin and the Loire-Atlantique in September and Octobre, before taking course south towards Patagonia, the end of the world to which Karukinka has been dedicated since its beginning.
Karukinka means Land of Fire in Selk’nam, a tribe living between south of Magellan Strait and Beagle canal. Some work indicate it would also mean “the last land of men” which, in the history of migrations, takes its full meaning since it is the last land reached by foot in all the history of human migrations.
So, this year we will go back to the canals of Patagonia of the biosphere reserve of the Cape Horn, in order to complement Lauriane’s work under the “Cape North – Cap Horn” project that started in 2022. We also propose four 18-day sailing internships departing from Ushuaia or Puerto Williams between February and April 2025 to explore together these islands, fjords, mountains and glaciers as beautiful as they are fascinating.
And before that, between October 2024 and January 2025, we are proposing a series of offshore internships during the +7000 nm composing this trip, with beautiful upcoming stopovers: Brittany – the Canaries (14 days), the Canaries – Cabo Verde (9 days), Cabo Verde – Brazil Transatlantic (20 days), Brazil – Argentina (15 days) and Buenos Aires – Land of Fire (21 days).
For the last few weeks, you now have the possibility to book our internships directly online using the HelloAsso platform, all the dates are indicated on the internship pages, with a summary of the prices and terms & conditions in the “Booking request” tab. Should you have any question, you can also reach us by email (contact@karukinka.eu), telephone and WhatsApp (+33 6 72 83 03 94).
We look forward to sailing together “here”, “there”, or “over there”: we always count on you to keep spreading the word and quench your thirst of adventure so that we keep on building such great teams on board!
Damien
PS: we plan on careening the Milagro at La Turballe the second half of September: anyone who is up to spending elbow grease to come and help us, will be welcome!
If you plan to go stop at La Rochelle this summer, don’t miss this trip to the end of the world! This sound and immersive fiction was created by Sébastien Laurier in collaboration with the Phare du bout du monde (Lighthouse of the end of the world) association and the town of La Rochelle: for one hour, you are transported into the far south of Patagonia, from the post-office of the tip of the Minimes harbour.
Several members of the Karukinka association took part in this project, among whom Mirtha Salamanca (Selk’nam woman, member of the Argentinian indigenous participative board), voiced in French by Marie-Pierre Lemasson, cash-flow manager of the association, who’s known by Mirtha since 2019 when she first came to France under the project Haizebegi. Indeed, our main protagonist, Lauriane, finds echo in Karukinka’s founder…
And if you wish to go further, come with us to visit the “real” lighthouse of the end of the world next winter and spring (North Spring!) (February-April 2025) onboard the association’s sailing ship: the Milagro. More information on: https://karukinka-exploration.com/patagonie-2025/
Early in the morning, we raise anchor at the still and at a few cable lengths from Castle Moy on Loch Buie (Isle of Mull). In this loch facing south-west, last night was moderately pleasant, due to a small swell from the south that came before the wind forecast in the same direction, forcing the Milagro to keep an annoying stand through this swell (and cradle us of course, but we would have gladly done without it!).
By accumulating starting the engine, lifting the anchor, cleaning the pile of gravel and sludge that stained the chain and anchor, and hoisting sails to be able to navigate only through them, we have set a new record of a minimum use of the engine: 20 minutes! We are able to leave the loch thanks to the mizzen mast and the yankee, at close, at 5.5 knots: what’s the use of pushing it?
The forecast is good (South 3 to 5 going to 2 to 4 for a few hours, before going to 3 to 5 and move to North-West 4 to 6 south of the Isle of Mull. We make the most of the ebbing tide to keep at good distance from the southern coast, despite a closed haul. This part of the island situated between Loch Scridain (North) and the end of Firth of Lorn (South) form a peninsula called Ross of Mull. The further West we navigate, the more complex the bottoms get, with many reefs to go through to reach our goal: Iona.
The basalt cliffs (palisades again!) are, at times, shaped into caves and arches sculpted by erosion and are interspersed by gorgeous turquoise waterfalls and creeks. Disregarding the water temperature (14 degrees), this colour could entice us to go swimming! We are stunned by the beauty of the landscape and change course to come closer, close-hauled to Malcom’s Point waterfall, before going back to our southern course.
Gradually, we come across more demanding passages, of which the Torran Rocks mapped by Bogha nan Ramfhear cardinal and the entry towards the south of the Sound of Iona. Once again, we experience many moments of solitude (and laughter obviously) which intersperse with the times when we name the rocks, bays, reefs, islands and capes! Our encounters with locals who didn’t speak Gaelic reassured us when we talked about it with them: they were only just about able to mumble a few words! If you want to get an idea of the moment, just look at the map of that area!
We enter the channel separating Ross of Mull from Iona by sail (close-hauled, 5.5 knots). Being the only sailing ship in this channel at the end of the afternoon, we decide not to set course north by means of the engine.
We prefer to take our time to study the map thoroughly and look for any visual signs onshore to successfully cross the channel by exclusively relying on the alignments (cathedral, Bull Hole…) and the sounder indicators, rather than following what’s on the screens. We prepare several recordings by means of the compass and jibing manoeuvres in relatively narrow passages to go round sounders of a sand and rock band between 10cms and 1m60, then sail starboard off Eilean nam Ban Island and its amazing colours. We arrive in a new area and reach anchorage of Port na Fraing and its white sand beach, just for ourselves and on 7m bottom! (those of Martyrs’ Bay or Bull Hole are more crowdy). The forecast 4 to 6 Beaufort arrive at the end of the day, yet we are safe in the channel, under Iona’s wind.
After a restful night, we leave on the boat towards Martyr’s Bay’s ferry dock to visit this sacred place of the Scottish history of which Vicky Gunn has told us about: she is medieval history research we had met in Loch Melfort.
Iona is a small island facing the Atlantic Ocean and has only one land at the surface towards the West at this latitude, given the dangerous surroundings of Skerryvore (next comes Canada). It’s surrounded with reefs of which the black rocks are set in contrast with the white sand beaches. Bestowed with a small village offering all the essential services (including a primary school) and several craftworkers (potters, wood sculptors, jewellery designers, basket makers, weavers…), Iona is considered one of the main spiritual places of Scotland. Many come in pilgrimage and/or to find peace during spiritual retreats.
Why is this small island so important, then? This is what we’ll share with you further in details thanks to the information given by Vicky during our visit, and through the reading and research that followed.
The first conclusion we can make is that the cultural and historical importance of Iona is totally out of proportion, given its size. It has been inhabited at least since the Bronze Age as can be seen with Blàr Buidhe site; but it is only from the 6th century that the importance of Iona was documented. Several toponyms are associated with the island, including “Ì”, “Ì Challuim Chille” (Iona of St Columba to avoid any confusions), “Eilean Idhe” (The isle of Iona) and “Ì nam ban bòidheach” (Iona of the beautiful woman in gaelic), and its inhabitants are called the Idheach.
563 saw the arrival of twelves disciples sailing on Columbia from the north of Ireland. They founded the second Christianisation mission of Scotland, one century and a half after the former one led by Ninian of the Isle of Whithorn in 397, and of which the precepts would have been conveyed all the way to the Shetland islands. It was a strategic move to establish a church and a monastery on Iona, since that island was situated on a waterway allowing passage from Inverness to Ireland but also the whole Celtic world. Like Holy Island and Portmahomack, Iona quickly became a source of dissemination of the Celtic version of the Christian religion and of new ideas and creations (including illumination/calligraphy, music, painting and art crafts). Choosing this place to do it was very efficient because it was situated on a main cultural and commercial axis at the time. The small community that had settled there also developed a subsistence economy with an important farming activity (cereal cultures and breeding), fishing and building. They were not completely self-reliant, since they used to import wine, pigments and oils from the south of France for liturgic purposes!
For 34 years, Columba developed close ties with royalty, converting, for example, King Bruce and the Picts to Christianism, following a spiritual battle he won against the referent of their kingdom. Columba also facilitated, until his death in 597, the establishment of an independent realm in west Scotland: Argyll. Most of this information reached us thanks to Adomnàn, a diplomat who succeeded to and was St Columba’s biographer, by leading the mission for 25 years, in the 7th century. He wrote several major works to understand that period, including “The life of Saint Columba” (“Vita Sancti Columbae”, circa 690) and “The Law of the innocents” (“Lex Innocentium” dated 697).
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Vikings attacked Iona on several occasions, attracted by the treasures of the monastery. 825 saw one of the worst Viking raids: Father Blathmac and the monks with him were tortured for the purpose of getting them to reveal the place where the relics of St Columba were hidden, a poem mentioning they would lay inside a chest covered with gold and silver. When nothing was confessed, they were slaughtered in a bay later called Martyrs’ Bay. The fear of those raids and their repetitive nature was such that it had led to an exodus of many clergymen who made sure to take the rarest relics with them (including St Columba’s bones) and another treasure: the Book of Kells (created in Iona 200 years after St Columba’s death, this book is considered one of the most remarkable religious works of the time and can now be seen at Trinity College in Dublin). Despite these relentless attacks, the monastery remained active, and the frequency of the raids only decreased in the 10th century when the Vikings settled in the Hebrides converted to Christianism and adopted St Columba as their saint patron. Several engraved tomb stones preserved in the museum show the Viking influence with inscriptions in rune.
In the 11th century, Iona and most of the western Scottish isles were under the power of the king of Norway. The distance made it quite complicated to rule the region, the king entrusted a Norwegian-Gaelic warrior with the task: Somerled. He became the first Lord of the Isles, controlling a region spreading from Kintyre to the Inner Hebrides. His descendants were the MacDougalls of Lorn, MacDonalds of Islay and MacRuairis of Garmoran, several of them having played a major role in the 14th political manoeuvres and independence wars.
During our excursion onshore and on our way to the abbey, we walked across the ruins of a convent and followed the Road of the Dead (“Sràid nam marbh”), a road paved with pink granite and connecting the Martyr Bay with St Columba’s tombstone situated at the centre of the benedictine abbey built in the 15th century. This route was the very same one followed by pilgrims and during the processions dedicated to the graves of important actors of the Gaelic world in the cemetery of Reilig Odhrain surrounding St Oran chapel which was built in the 12th century (the oldest intact structure of the island). It is said that, in this cemetery, would lay 48 Scottish Kings (among whom Macbeth / Mac Bethad), members of the clan of MacDonald Lord of the Isles, some of whom with Norse ascendents (MacKinnons, MacLeans and MacLeods) and, in a small chapel so simple it is baffling, the bodies of the most important lord and war chiefs of the western Scottish islands. Many old, sculpted tombstones are still in this cemetery, while others have been moved to the museum of the abbey cloister to ensure their preservation. It is said that the first crosses on the tombstones, considered rather conventional nowadays, would have appeared in Iona approximately in 600, as shown with the oldest crosses ornate with sophisticated symbols and bearing various designs as shown by the various examples seen in the museum next to the abbey.
Afterwards, we leave this cemetery and walk to the rocky headland called Torr an aba, facing the abbey and where Columba used to work. This site offers an outstanding view on the Sound of Iona, the far end of Ross of Mull and the small chapel containing St Columba’s tomb and situated just behind the replica of an impressive granite, sculpted cross dedicated to St Jean (the original one is in the museum). This abbey was built in the 13th century after the arrival of benedictine monks and Augustinian sisters invited over by Ranald, the Lord of the Islands and descendant of Somerled, with the purpose of revitalising religious life on the island, while being offered more subsequent means of subsistence. Several armed attacks sabotaged this new monastery, as several Irish religious chiefs would not accept to lose their ties and influence on Iona. Following the Treaty of Perth (1266) between Norway and Scotland, Iona went back to the kingdom of Scotland, and progressively became an important pilgrimage place until the Reformation of 1560 which saw the end of the monasteries in Scotland.
Several restoration attempts were then carried out without any success, and progressively transformed the buildings into ruins by the end of the 19th century, as shown by several photos taken before some important work. The 8th Duke of Argyll, owner of the island, commissioned an architect to consolidate the ruins, then sold the abbey, the cemetery and the convent to Iona Cathedral Trust in 1899. Several renovation works were launched, and 6 years later, a first service was able to be performed in the partially renovated church. As the decades went by, dedication focused on restoring the monastery and the whole west part of the cloister, at the instigation of Iona Community, a Christian community that works towards peace and social justice and whose members are disseminated around the world. In 2000 Iona Cathedral Trust ended up selling the abbey, the cemetery, Saint Ronan’s church and the convent to Scotland’s historical monuments. Today the cathedral is still in good shape and well-kept by means of the revenues generated from the visits and donations.
Anyway, as you may have gathered, Iona is the place to be when you go to the Hebrides. It is to Scotland what St Jacques de Compostelle is to France and Spain, and if you really want to do the pilgrimage, we would recommend you do it sailing rather than walking. Even if you are not passionate about history, the sheer beauty of the monument and its surroundings is outstanding: they create a parenthesis where you are transported at different times and allow you to look at those islands with a different eye. Iona really does create room for the imaginary, eventually echoing everything we also look for in the navigation and the lengthy disconnection from the uproar it procures, being in harmony with, yet depending on the elements. This feeling can also be found in the words of the composer Felix Mendelssohn in 1829 featured on one of the exit walls of the cloister: “When in some future time I shall sit in a madly crowded assembly with music and dancing round me, and the wish arises to retire into the loneliest loneliness, I shall think of Iona.”
Time flew and we didn’t notice, and we came back to the Milagro only late afternoon and quickly nibbled on something before raising anchor, to make the most of the good conditions to reach Staffa, then Ulva before nightfall.
A small bonus: the sunset lights on the reefs and ocean spray southwards of Iona a couple of weeks later, departing the Treshnish islands.
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On the occasion of the Green Shift Festival, held from 5th to 7th June in Monaco, Jorge Quilaqueo, a Mapuche Chaman, exchanged with Sabah Rahmani, an anthropologist journalist, and Hélène Collongues, anthropologist specialising in the Jivaro people.
On the stage of the Green Shift Festival, from left to right, Jorge Quilaqueo, Sabah Rahmani, Hélène Collongues and Sébastien Uscher (the mediator). Credited by Philippe Fitte / FPA2
Jorge Quilaqueo is a Mapuche Chaman. This autochthonous people from Chile and Argentina once occupied a large part of the territory around the Andes Cordillera, until the arrival of the Spanish, from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. Jorge Quilaqueo defends the rights of his people, dispossessed of a large part of their lands and wiped out gradually through the ages – there would be less than one million Mapuches today.
He is working at inciting all the people to reconnect to the living.
When stopping in Europe, he opened the 2024 Green Shift Festival of Monaco on 5th June with a water ceremony. This event was dedicated to new utopias of a more sustainable world and was the opportunity to talk about « the ecology of the emotional rather than the rational », as explained by Olivier Wenden, vice-president of the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, who’s organising the festival, and of which WE DEMAIN is a collaborator.
It is after a superb stopover made up of encounters as beautiful as the surrounding landscapes that we leave Loch Melfort to head towards the south of Mull Island. To do this, several options exist and we choose that of Cuan Sound, a (fairly) narrow channel separating Seil Island from its southern neighbors, Luing and Torsa. The conditions being too calm to advance solely under sail and arrive in time for the right moment of tide, it is with engine support that we enter the channel. The “eddies” (eddies) indicated on the map are there, accompanied by fairly anarchic current veins as they pass through the north of An Cléiteadh. The crew of the small Cuan ferry, connecting Seil and Luing, greets us and, past some ruins at the exit of the channel where sheep and cattle graze, we enter the inland Firth of Lorn (“Ann Linne Latharnach” in Gaelic), hoist the sails and let’s turn off the engine to cross this bay downwind and under full sail, under a big cloudless blue sky.
The Firth of Lorn(e) is a bay located in the continuity of the Great Glen fault (that of the Caledonian Canal). This place has been classified, taking into account the diversity of landscapes and species that inhabit it, as a protected area since 2014. As shown in the bathymetric maps of the Firth of Lorn, the relief of the seabed is similar to that of the surface. : cliffs, flats and peaks. All this contributes to creating very diverse conditions where species reaching their northern or southern migration limits respectively meet. The morphology of the seabed and its opening towards the Atlantic mean that it is better to go there in good weather to avoid static waves and whirlpools. The effects of the tide are strong there, with significant currents from the Great Race. In our favor during the crossing, this current accompanies us towards Loch Spelve.
We enter under sail in the evening, along green cliffs and revealing the first evidence of active volcanism more than 40 million years ago: columns of basalt (from lava) to the east and to the south of the loch and a mixture of granophyre (quartz-containing) and olivine-encrusted sandstone (sandy sedimentary rock) to the west and north.
We leave sea farms on either side and drop anchor at the bottom of the west loch, to the sound of the cries of flying oystercatchers and the bleating of sheep. The calm is total and not a stir breaks the nighttime tranquility.
The next day we set off on foot for Loch Uisg, a large lake located in the axis of the Great Glen fault and surrounded by Loch Spelve to the north-east and Loch Buie to the south-west. All along the way we marvel at the rhododendrons which, unlike at home where they are shrub-sized, are made of real dense and richly colored wood. Kinlochspelve church overlooks the east bank and opens before us the horizon of a body of water on which everyone imagines what sport they could practice there: windsurfing, kayaking, wingfoil, kite, dinghy… we aren’t in lack of ideas and the small pontoon next to a lodge confirms to us that we are really not the first to think of it!
We continue our walk towards Loch Buie to visit Moy Castle of the MacLaine clan of Lochbuie. Built in 1450 by Hector Reaganach Maclean, this three-storey castle, directly supplied with fresh water on the ground floor, was recognized by the King of Scotland in 1494. It was erected a stone’s throw from the bank in order to allow ships to easily access it. A still visible arch of stones served as a fish trap and several large blocks facilitate landing from small boats. It was the scene of clashes such as during the Jacobite revolt of 1689. This castle had to be restored at the end of this period and was also modified over the centuries to improve comfort (e.g. installation of a fireplace in the 16th century). It was only in 1790 that the MacLaine clan of Lochbuie left it in favor of a more comfortable neighboring habitat, once more peaceful times had returned: the Moy house. For several decades the use of Moy Castle was reduced to that of its dungeon as a prison.
The loch is so beautiful that we decide to return there with Milagro and enjoy a new excursion the next day to the megaliths. On our return to Loch Spelve we are no longer alone at anchor and meet the friendly neighboring crew, a trio of Scots impressed by the size and line of our Milagro. We invite them on board for coffee the next morning, before weighing anchor towards Loch Buie.
Navigation is across (4-5 Beaufort), leeward of Mull Island. We approach Moy Castle and enjoy a splendid view of the highest peak of the loch: Ben Buie (717m). We drop anchor in an indentation in the loch and disembark to see these famous megaliths. The weather is so beautiful that bathers are enjoying the nearby beach and we are quick to abandon the windbreakers and prefer t-shirts. The walk towards the megaliths leads us to the encounter of a meeting between deer and sheep. We follow the white stones showing us the way to the circle of megaliths. Before arrival, another site is spotted by Lauriane, a few hundred meters away, similar to certain tumuli-type tombs visible within the megalithic site of Saint Just in Brittany (composed of several rooms and an entrance corridor ). The sight of the circle of megaliths fascinates: what does it mean? The lack of scientific consensus on the subject allows everyone to project their imagination and see it as a ritual site, a monument linked to the alignment of the stars or even a gathering place to party!
After dinner at anchor the sky becomes thicker and a little rolling appears to lull us. We prepare for the next navigation to Iona, the sacred island.
Soon we will publish a short video summarizing our stops at Loch Spelve and Loch Buie and incorporating images of the megalith circle.
![[#8 – Ireland–Scotland 2024] from Loch Buie to the sacred Isle of Iona](https://karukinka.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Iona_LL-1080x675.jpg)
